Apolipoprotein E (apoE) mediates the hepatic clearance of plasma lipoproteins, facilitates cholesterol efflux from macrophages and aids neuronal lipid transport. ApoE is expressed at high levels in hepatocytes, macrophages and astrocytes. In the present study, we identify nuclear and cytosolic pools of apoE in human fibroblasts. Fibroblast apoE mRNA and protein levels were up-regulated during staurosporine-induced apoptosis and this was correlated with increased caspase-3 activity and apoptotic morphological alterations. Because the transcription of apoE and specific pro-apoptotic genes is regulated by the nuclear receptor LXR (liver X receptor) α, we analysed LXRα mRNA expression by quantitative real-time PCR and found it to be increased before apoE mRNA induction. The expression of ABCA1 (ATP-binding cassette transporter A1) mRNA, which is also regulated by LXRα, was increased in parallel with apoE mRNA, indicating that LXRα probably promotes apoE and ABCA1 transcription during apoptosis. Fibroblast apoE levels were increased under conditions of serum-starvation-induced growth arrest and hyperoxia-induced senescence. In both cases, an increased nuclear apoE level was observed, particularly in cells that accumulated lipofuscin. Nuclear apoE was translocated to the cytosol when mitotic nuclear disassembly occurred and this was associated with an increase in total cellular apoE levels. ApoE amino acid sequence analysis indicated several potential sites for phosphorylation. In vivo studies, using 32 P-labelling and immunoprecipitation, revealed that fibroblast apoE can be phosphorylated. These studies reveal novel associations and potential roles for apoE in fundamental cellular processes.

We propose a new mechanism for sphingosine-induced apoptosis, involving relocation of lysosomal hydrolases to the cytosol. Owing to its lysosomotropic properties, sphingosine, which is also a detergent, especially when protonated, accumulates by proton trapping within the acidic vacuolar apparatus, where most of its action as a detergent would be exerted. When sphingosine was added in low-to-moderate concentrations to Jurkat and J774 cells, partial lysosomal rupture occurred dose-dependently, starting within a few minutes. This phenomenon preceded caspase activation, as well as changes of mitochondrial membrane potential. High sphingosine doses rapidly caused extensive lysosomal rupture and ensuing necrosis, without antecedent apoptosis or caspase activation. The sphingosine effect was prevented by pre-treatment with another, non-toxic, lysosomotropic base, ammonium chloride, at 10mM. The lysosomal protease inhibitors, pepstatin A and epoxysuccinyl- l -leucylamido-3-methyl-butane ethyl ester (‘E-64d’), inhibited markedly sphingosine-induced caspase activity to almost the same degree as the general caspase inhibitor benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala- d l -Asp-fluoromethylketone (‘Z-VAD-FMK’), although they did not by themselves inhibit caspases. We conclude that cathepsin D and one or more cysteine proteases, such as cathepsins B or L, are important mediators of sphingosine-induced apoptosis, working upstream of the caspase cascade and mitochondrial membrane-potential changes.